Sexual Dimorphism of the Neuroimmunoendocrine Response in the Spleen during a Helminth Infection: A New Role for an Old Player?

The interaction of the nervous, immune, and endocrine systems is crucial in maintaining homeostasis in vertebrates, and vital in mammals. The spleen is a key organ that regulates the neuroimmunoendocrine system. The Taenia crassiceps mouse system is an excellent experimental model to study the complex host-parasite relationship, particularly sex-associated susceptibility to infection. The present study aimed to determine the changes in neurotransmitters, cytokines, sex steroids, and sex-steroid receptors in the spleen of cysticercus-infected male and female mice and whole parasite counts. We found that parasite load was higher in females in comparison to male mice. The levels of the neurotransmitter epinephrine were significantly decreased in infected male animals. The expression of IL-2 and IL-4 in the spleen was markedly increased in infected mice; however, the expression of Interleukin (IL)-10 and interferon (IFN)-γ decreased. We also observed sex-associated differences between non-infected and infected mice. Interestingly, the data show that estradiol levels increased in infected males but decreased in females. Our studies provide evidence that infection leads to changes in neuroimmunoendocrine molecules in the spleen, and these changes are dimorphic and impact the establishment, growth, and reproduction of T. crassiceps. Our findings support the critical role of the neuroimmunoendocrine network in determining sex-associated susceptibility to the helminth parasite.

Cysticidal effect of a pure naphthoquinone on Taenia crassiceps cysticerci.

Cysticercosis is a disease caused by the metacestode of the parasite Taenia solium (T. solium). In humans, the most severe complication of the disease is neurocysticercosis. The drug of choice to treat this disease is albendazole; however, the bioavailability and efficacy of the drug are variable. Therefore, new molecules with therapeutic effects against this and other parasitic infections caused by helminths must be developed. Naphthoquinones are naphthalene-derived compounds that possess antibacterial, antifungal, antitumoral, and antiparasitic properties. The aim of this work was to evaluate the in vitro anti-helminthic effect of 2-[(3-chlorophenylamino)phenylmethyl]-3-hydroxy-1,4-naphthoquinone, isolated from a natural source and then synthesized (naphthoquinone 4a), using an experimental model of murine cysticercosis caused by Taenia crassiceps (T. crassiceps). This compound causes paralysis in the cysticerci membrane from day 3 of the in vitro treatment. Additionally, it induces changes in the shape, size, and appearance of the cysticerci and a decrease in the reproduction rate. In conclusion, naphthoquinone 4a has in vitro cysticidal activity on T. crassiceps cysticerci depending on the duration of the treatment and the concentration of the compound. Therefore, it is a promising drug candidate to be used in T. crassiceps and possibly T. solium infections.

Sleep deprivation induces changes in immunity in Trichinella spiralis-infected rats.

Sleep is considered an important predictor of immunity. A lack of sleep may reduce immunity, which increases susceptibility to any type of infection. Moreover, sleep deprivation in humans produces changes in both, the percent of circulating immune cells (T cells and NK cells) and cytokine levels (IL-1, IFNγ, TNΦ-αα, IL-6 and IL-17). The aim of our study was to investigate whether sleep deprivation produces deregulation on immune variables during the immune response generated against the helminth parasite Trichinella spiralis. Because sleep deprivation is stressful per se, we designed another experiments to compared stress alone (consisting in movement restriction and single housing) with sleep deprivation, in both control (uninfected) and experimental (infected) rats. Our results demonstrate that the sleep deprivation and stress have a differential effect in mesenteric lymph nodes (MLN) and spleen. In uninfected rats sleep deprivation alone produces an increase in natural killer cells (NK+) and B cells (CD45+), accompanied by a decrease in cytotoxic T cells (CD3+CD8+) in spleen; while, in MLN, produces only an increase in natural killer cells (NK+). Both, SD and stress, produce an increased percentage of total T cells (CD3+) in spleen. In the MLN both are also associated to an increase in cytotoxic T cells (CD3+CD8+) and B cells (CD45+). In the spleens of parasitized rats, cell populations did not change. In spleens of both, sleep-deprived and stressed infected rats, we observed an increase in B cells (CD45+). In infected rats, sleep deprivation alone produced an increase in NK cells (NK+). In mesenteric node cell populations of parasitized rats, we observed a decrease in NK cells and an increase in T helper (CD4+) cells in both SD and stressed rats. Rats that were only subjected to stress showed a decrease in B cells (CD45+). These findings suggest that the immune response generated against infection caused by T. spiralis is affected when the sleep pattern is disrupted. These results support the notion that sleep is a fundamental process for an adequate and strong immune response generated against this parasite.

Gender-associated differential expression of cytokines in specific areas of the brain during helminth infection.

Intraperitoneal infection with Taenia crassiceps cysticerci in mice alters several behaviors, including sexual, aggressive, and cognitive function. Cytokines and their receptors are produced in the central nervous system (CNS) by specific neural cell lineages under physiological and pathological conditions, regulating such processes as neurotransmission. This study is aimed to determine the expression patterns of cytokines in various areas of the brain in normal and T. crassiceps-infected mice in both genders and correlate them with the pathology of the CNS and parasite counts. IL-4, IFN-γ, and TNF-α levels in the hippocampus and olfactory bulb increased significantly in infected male mice, but IL-6 was downregulated in these regions in female mice. IL-1ß expression in the hippocampus was unaffected by infection in either gender. Our novel findings demonstrate a clear gender-associated pattern of cytokine expression in specific areas of the brain in mammals that parasitic infection can alter. Thus, we hypothesize that intraperitoneal infection is sensed by the CNS of the host, wherein cytokines are important messengers in the host-parasite neuroimmunoendocrine network.

Los efectos conductuales modulados por las citocinas / Behavioural changes modulated by interleukins

The nervous, endocrine, and immune systems maintain permanent and concerted communication through humoral and neural pathways, which involves neurotransmitters like serotonin and noradrenaline; hormones like cortisol, corticosterone release hormone; and a wide range of inflammatory molecules and their corresponding receptors. Variations in the circulatory levels of these soluble mediators modulate several physiological processes and help to mantain homeostasis in the face of stressful stimuli, regardless whether they are physical like systemic bacterial, viral or parasitical infections, as well as tissular injuries or psychological stress, that is secondary to the individual's perception and processing. Chronic activation of neuro-immune-endocrine interactions induces numerical and functional changes in these systems and behavioral disorders. "Sickness behavior" is one the most studied behavioral disorders that is characterized by the presence of anhedonia, fatigue, psychomotor retardation, decreased appetite, altered sleep patterns, and pain-increased sensitivity. Based on the similarities between the behavioral symptoms of "sickness behavior" and major depression, it has been hypothesized that molecules like cytokines and other inflammatory factors could be involved in the pathophysiology of several neuropsychiatric disorders, such as depression, cognitive dysfunction, fatigue, anxiety and personality disorders as well as neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson and Alzheimer. The behavioral disorders in major depression can be induced by single or combined administration of proinflammatory cytokines as well as mitogens or infectious agents that induce significant secretion of wide range of inflammatory molecules. Variations in peripheral and central inflammatory mediators significantly affect the levels of neurotransmitters, such as glutamate, dopamine, and serotonin; p38 MAPK and IDO proteins. The latest data on the involvement of cytokines and neurotransmitters in metabolic pathways have provided various targets for pharmaceutical development and have established new treatment approaches for psychiatric disorders. All this advantages about molecular mecanism involved in behavioural changes will result in the short term in a better quality of life for patients.

Los Sistemas Nervioso, Endocrino e Inmunológico mantienen a través de la vía humoral y neuronal una comunicación permanente y concertada que incluye a las hormonas neurotransmisoras, las citocinas y a sus respectivos receptores expresados en las células que conforman estos tres sistemas. La variación de los niveles de estos mediadores solubles induce la regulación de varios procesos fisiológicos y media la respuesta de nuestro organismo ante la presencia de estímulos estresantes, tanto físicos como psicológicos. La activación crónica de la interacción neuroendocrinoinmunológica favorece la aparición de variaciones numéricas y funcionales en los tres sistemas involucrados y genera alteraciones de tipo conductual. Entre las alteraciones conductuales más estudiadas destaca el llamado "sickness behavior", que se caracteriza por la presencia de anedonia, fatiga, enlentecimiento psicomotor, disminución del apetito, alteraciones en el patrón del sueño y un incremento en la sensibilidad al dolor. Las similitudes entre los síntomas conductuales del "sickness behavior" y la depresión mayor han permitido establecer una hipótesis sobre la participación de las citocinas y otros factores inflamatorios en la fisiopatología de algunos trastornos neuropsiquiátricos como la depresión, la disfunción cognitiva, la fatiga, los trastornos de ansiedad, los de la personalidad y las enfermedades neurodegenerativas como las de Parkinson y de Alzheimer. Las alteraciones conductuales presentes en la depresión mayor pueden ser inducidas por la administración individual o conjunta de citocinas proinflamatorias, de mitógenos o por agentes infecciosos que inducen una importante secreción de moléculas inflamatorias. Las variaciones periféricas y centrales de los mediadores inflamatorios influyen significativamente sobre los neurotransmisores como el glutamato, la dopamina, la serotonina, la proteína p38 MAPK y la indolomina-2-3 dioxigenasa (IDO). Es por ello que actualmente las citocinas, los neurotransmisores al igual que las rutas metabólicas en las que participan son el blanco de nuevos tratamientos para algunos padecimientos psiquiátricos, lo que mejorará la calidad de vida para los pacientes.